The argument is an old one, and yet has somehow kept
its vigor, even in the 21st century. What affect did
Christianity have on gender roles in western society? Some people assert that
the rise of Christianity effectively stomped out any ability for women to be
considered equal for, arguably, millenniums afterward. Others might say that
the writers of the Christian scriptures were the feminists of their day,
affording each woman the hope and knowledge of spiritual equality to men in her
own rite. So, which is it? Is the answer really that difficult to discern? And
if so, why is it that these “spiritual” rights have not afforded women their
“physical” and civil liberties too?
Liberties of Ancient Roman Women
To begin, an
examination of the role of women in ancient Rome must be done. Little is known
about women in the very early days of Rome. They must have had some measure of
equality because they worked with their husbands on family farms. Historians
know that farmers were the proverbial "backbone" of early
Rome. They were hard-working farmers who had no time for leisure. After the
Punic wars, in which Rome inherited almost a million slaves, the political
structures of society changed as farmers moved into cities and fought for the
professional army. Rome became a great empire at this point and women were
granted citizenship, allowed to inherit and retain property, have wills, appear
in court and have the equal testimony of a man, and even sit at the dinner
table with the men in the household. There were limits to these relative
freedoms, however, but citizenship, business and land-owning liberties speak
volumes as to her worth in first-century Roman society.
Marriage and Sexuality
One must divorce
him or herself from the idea of modern marriage to consider the societal
functionalities of ancient Roman marriages. Nobility’s marriages were often
arranged, and it was a matter of social standing rather than for love. Women
were usually linked with their families of origin, except in just a few
circumstances. Women did not take their husbands' names and inherited wealth
through their fathers, and that wealth was equal to that of their brothers.
Sure, the liberties of women did depend largely on wealth and social
status, but a few women did run their own businesses.
Adultery for the
ancient Romans did not have the same definition as today. One could participate
in sex with slaves or prostitutes, or virtually anyone of lower social standing
to them. This was true for both men and women. Loyalty was important to a Roman
marriage, but loyalty did not necessarily mean faithful. Women, in reality, did
have less liberty than men in this department, but it was not a matter of
morality like one would think; it was a matter of paternity. If a woman were to
get pregnant from an extramarital affair, then paternity and inheritance to the
child could not be certain, and this could interrupt the status quo.
Women and Roman Law
Women did have
considerable influence in Roman society in spite of the fact that they did not
have the right to vote. They had so much influence in fact, that it is arguable
that they may have been on the verge of being given the right to vote until
spread of Christianity. The influence of women in the political realm, though
collateral, should not be understated. Women often participated in political
discussion in a wide variety of places, yet were expected to be subject to
their husbands in the public eye. Consider that though women may not have been
on the verge of total equality, they may have been getting
close to voting rights by the time of the Christianization of Rome.
Fall of Rome, Rise of Christianity, and
Decline of Women’s Rights
Rome didn’t fall
in a day, as they say, and perhaps it was no coincidence that Christianity gained
popularity during those first few centuries AD. Rome, as mentioned, originally
built on the backs of the middle class (the small farmers), became increasingly
elitist. Eventually, politics were completely monopolized by the elite, and the
middle class became disenchanted with the sovereignty of Rome. The patriotism
in Rome began to wane. Many decided not to fight for the military and the
number of soldiers dwindled. Perhaps it was understandable that
Christianity gained popularity. The original precepts of Christianity did not
distinguish between the poor or the rich, male or female, slave or free, but
held all in the same regard. Thus began the exchange of the enchantment with
Rome with the enchantment with Christianity.
Not only had
freemen begun to question the authority of Rome, but younger women had begun to
rebel against social norms by stepping out of their traditional roles, even
where motherhood was concerned. Roman women were expected to bear children, but
it was uncommon for Roman women to have more than a couple of kids. Women often
chose not to breastfeed their infants but purchase breast milk, and for those
who could afford it, full-time wet-nurses were hired to live in the home and
care for infants.
One of the
rights that ancient Roman women had that modern western women are still
struggling to regain, is reproductive freedom. There is evidence of herbal
birth controls that were high in estrogen. If the women ingested these herbs,
ovulation could be suppressed, and thus, pregnancy would not occur.
Spermicides, both male and female condoms, and vinegar douches were also
common. Abortions were not considered a crime, because it was believed that one
is not fully human until after birth. Reproductive rights might help account
for the small size of most Roman families.
Christianity was
still not a driving force in Rome even at just before the conversion of
Constantine; however, once Constantine declared Christianity as the official
religion of Rome, Christianity took on a highly political livelihood.
Historians aren't so sure that the “conversion” of Constantine in the third
century might not have been a political ploy, as it is common knowledge that
Constantine was certainly not exclusive with his own Christianity.
Perhaps he only declared Christianity to be the religion of Rome for
purposes of unifying a decaying empire.
As was clear
with civilizations past, successfully functioning societies need "unifying
agents." In early Rome that unifying agent would have been patriotism, but
in later Rome, because patriotism waned, there needed to be something else.
Unifying a dying society through Christian teachings would beget
control. It is admittedly speculative, but perhaps Rome thought it needed
to get back to its "roots." In other words, progression may have been
seen as a destructive ideal. And for the wayward women who had begun to rebel
against social norms, it's possible that those who were in control of society
thought that if laws governed the liberties of women, then maybe women would
desire traditional gender roles, and thus restore Rome back to its original
splendor.
It should be
noted that the rise of Christian principles were arguably to blame for women
not having any kind of consideration or a voice at all. For instance, the
once growing practice of obstetrics became obsolete by the Middle Ages. The
church began to control every aspect of the lives of Christianity's observers,
and women were oppressed. They no longer were protected by civil laws, people’s
laws, or even natural laws. They were, in a sense, raped of all liberties and
influence in society. The use of contraceptives was punishable, requiring
penances lasting two to fifteen years, for it was considered as grave as the
sin of murder. If any woman enjoyed sex, she was said to be prone to
witchcraft. And so it was, that in a relatively short period of time, women had
lost all the influence they once had at the height of the Roman Empire.
As a result of
Christendom, women wouldn’t again gain much, if any, measurable headway in
women’s liberties for the better part of two millenniums. And even today, there
is still pressure to marry Christianity to politics. What is truly the
liberation of women? For some sects of Christianity, spiritual equality will
never translate to physical equality to men. For those sects, women are to be
greatly respected and revered, but only within their God-given
roles of obedience to their husbands and their dedication to motherhood.
